地球的故事: 动物

自然界中生物的一大类，与植物相对。多以有机物为食料，有神经，有感觉，能运动。《周礼·地官·大司徒》：“辨五地之物生：一曰山林，其动物宜毛物，其植物宜早物。” 明叶子奇《草木子·观物》：“动物本诸天，所以头顺天而呼吸以气；植物本诸地，所以根顺地而升降以津。” 茅盾《尚未成功》：“人到底是感情的动物呀。”

动物是多细胞真核生命体中的一大类群，称之为动物界。一般不能将无机物合成有机物，只能以有机物（植物、动物或微生物）为食料，因此具有与植物不同的形态结构和生理功能，以进行摄食、消化、吸收、呼吸、循环、排泄、感觉、运动和繁殖等生命活动。动物的分类动物学根据自然界动物的形态、身体内部构造、胚胎发育的特点、生理习性、生活的地理环境等特征，将特征相同或相似的动物归为同一类. 成为脊索动物和无脊索动物两大类。
　　动物根据水生还是陆生，可将它们分为水生动物和陆生动物；根据有没有羽毛，可将它们分为有羽毛的动物和没有羽毛的动物。除以上两种特征外，我们还可以用其他的特征将它们进行分类。　　动物也有多种分类方法。通过对不同动物的解剖，可以发现有的动物体内有脊柱，有的动物体内没有脊柱，根据体内有无脊柱，我们可以将所有的动物分为脊椎动物和无脊椎动物两大类。　　注意：人也属于动物,而且是高级动物。　　

起源

动物界的历史，就是动物起源、分化和进化的漫长历程。是一个从单细胞到多细胞，从无脊椎到有脊椎，从低等到高等，从简单到复杂的过程。最早的单细胞的原生动物进化为多细胞的无脊椎动物，逐渐出现了海绵动物门、腔肠动物门、扁形动物门、纽形动物门、线形动物门、环节动物门、软体动物门、节肢动物门、棘皮动物。由没有脊椎的棘皮动物往前进化出现了脊椎动物，最早的脊椎动物是圆口纲，圆口纲在进化的过程中出现了上下颌、从水生到陆生。两栖动物是最早登上陆地的脊椎动物。虽然两栖动物已经能够登上陆地，但它们仍然没有完全摆脱水域环境的束缚，还必须在水中产卵繁殖并且度过童年时代。从原始的两栖动物继续进化，出现了爬行类。爬行动物可以在陆地上产卵、孵化，完全脱离了对水的依赖性，成为真正的陆生动物。爬行类及其以前的动物都属于变温动物，它们的身体会变得冰冷僵硬，这个时候它们不得不停止活动进入休眠状态。然后爬行类动物进化为鸟类，成为了恒温动物，不必进入休眠状态，最后进化成胎生动物哺乳类动物，而人是哺乳类动物中最高级的动物。

动物种类

目前已知的动物种类大约有150万种。可分为无脊椎动物和脊椎动物。

科学家已经鉴别出46900多种脊椎动物。包括鲤鱼、黄鱼等鱼类动物，蛇、蜥蜴等爬行类动物，还有大家熟悉的鸟类和哺乳类动物。　　科学家们还发现了大约130多万种无脊椎动物。这些动物中多数是昆虫，并且昆虫中多数是甲虫。另外，像鼻涕虫、海绵等动物都属于无脊椎动物。　　1.无脊椎动物中包括：原生动物、扁形动物、腔肠动物、棘皮动物、节肢动物、软体动物、环节动物、线形动物八大类。所以无脊椎动物占世界上所有动物的百分之九十以上。　　2.脊椎动物包括：鱼类、两栖类、爬行类、鸟类、哺乳类五大种类。　　脊椎动物特征 有由脊椎骨组成的脊柱(脊索只见于胚胎期)。脊柱保护脊髓、脊柱与其他骨骼组成脊椎动物特有的内骨骼系统。有明显的头部,背神经管的前端分化成脑及其他感觉器官，例如眼、耳等、脑及感觉器官集中在头部，可加强动物对外界的感应。身体由表皮及真皮覆盖。皮肤有腺体，大部份脊椎动物的皮肤有保护性构造，例如鳞片、羽毛、体毛等。有完整的消化系统、口腔内有舌，多数有牙齿,亦有肝及胰脏。循环系统包括有心脏、动脉、静脉及血管。排泄系统包括两个肾脏及一个膀胱。有内分泌腺，能分激素(荷尔蒙)调节身体机能，生长及生殖。

繁殖与发育

几乎所有的动物都会进行某种类型的有性生殖。成熟的个体是双倍体或多倍体的。它们有一些特化的生殖细胞，行减数分裂以产生较小可游动的精子或较大不可动的卵子。精子和卵子会结合成为受精卵，且发育成新的个体。
许多动物也能够行无性生殖。这可能发生在孤雌生殖（成熟卵没有经过交配而产生），或一些经由断裂生殖。　　受精卵一开始会发育成一个小球，称之为胚胎，在此进行重整和分化。在海绵里，胚胎幼体会游到一个新的位置上并发育成一个新的海绵。而在其他大多数的类群中，胚胎则会进行更为复杂的重整。胚胎一开始会内套以形成具有消化腔的原肠胚和两个各别的胚层－外胚层和内胚层。在大多数的情况下，还会有个中胚层在两者之间。这些胚层接着分化成各式组织和器官。　　大多数动物间接利用太阳光的能源来生长。植物利用太阳光来转化出简单的糖类，以一种称之为光合作用的过程。一开始是二氧化碳和水，经由光合作用后，太阳光的能源被转化成葡萄糖中键结的化学能，并释放出氧来。这些糖类接着被用来当做供植物生长的建材。当动物吃下这些植物（或吃下其他吃了植物的动物），由植物产生出来的糖便会被动物利用。这些糖或者直接利用来帮助动物生长，或者被分解掉，释放出储存的太阳能，以供动物活动的能量。此一过程称之为糖酵解。　　生活在靠近海床上的深海热泉和海底冷泉等地的动物不依靠太阳能。而是由化能合成的古菌和细菌形成其食物链的基部。

Animals are a major group of mostly multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently. All animals are also heterotrophs, meaning they must ingest other organisms for sustenance.
Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago

The word "animal" comes from the Latin word animalis (meaning with soul, from anima, soul). In everyday colloquial usage, the word usually refers to non-human animals. Frequently, only closer relatives of humans such as mammals and other vertebrates are meant in colloquial use. The biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures ranging from insects to humans.

Characteristics

Animals have several characteristics that set them apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and mostly multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and most protists. They are heterotrophic,generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking rigid cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at certain life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a blastula stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals.

Structure

With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges (Phylum Porifera) and Placozoa, animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues. These include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals. Typically, there is also an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings. Animals with this sort of organization are called metazoans, or eumetazoans when the former is used for animals in general.
All animals have eukaryotic cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins. This may be calcified to form structures like shells, bones, and spicules. During development, it forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized, making complex structures possible. In contrast, other multicellular organisms like plants and fungi have cells held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth. Also, unique to animal cells are the following intercellular junctions: tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes.

Reproduction and development

Nearly all animals undergo some form of sexual reproduction. They have a few specialized reproductive cells, which undergo meiosis to produce smaller, motile spermatozoa or larger, non-motile ova. These fuse to form zygotes, which develop into new individuals.
Many animals are also capable of asexual reproduction. This may take place through parthenogenesis, where fertile eggs are produced without mating, or in some cases through fragmentation.
A zygote initially develops into a hollow sphere, called a blastula, which undergoes rearrangement and differentiation. In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location and develop into a new sponge. In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement. It first invaginates to form a gastrula with a digestive chamber, and two separate germ layers — an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm. In most cases, a mesoderm also develops between them. These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs.

Food and energy sourcing

Main article: Animal nutrition

All animals are heterotrophs, meaning that they feed directly or indirectly on other living things. They are often further subdivided into groups such as carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, and parasites.
Predation is a biological interaction where a predator (a heterotroph that is hunting) feeds on its prey (the organism that is attacked). Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation always results in the death of the prey. The other main category of consumption is detritivory, the consumption of dead organic matter. It can at times be difficult to separate the two feeding behaviours, for example, where parasitic species prey on a host organism and then lay their eggs on it for their offspring to feed on its decaying corpse. Selective pressures imposed on one another has led to an evolutionary arms race between prey and predator, resulting in various antipredator adaptations.
Most animals feed indirectly from the energy of sunlight. Plants use this energy to convert sunlight into simple sugars using a process known as photosynthesis. Starting with the molecules carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O), photosynthesis converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy stored in the bonds of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and releases oxygen (O₂). These sugars are then used as the building blocks which allow the plant to grow. When animals eat these plants (or eat other animals which have eaten plants), the sugars produced by the plant are used by the animal. They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion. This process is known as glycolysis.
Animals living close to hydrothermal vents and cold seeps on the ocean floor are not dependent on the energy of sunlight. Instead chemosynthetic archaea and bacteria form the base of the food chain.

History of classification

Aristotle divided the living world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linné), in the first hierarchical classification. Since then biologists have begun emphasizing evolutionary relationships, and so these groups have been restricted somewhat. For instance, microscopic protozoa were originally considered animals because they move, but are now treated separately.
In Linnaeus's original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Reptila, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last five have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the Chordata, whereas the various other forms have been separated out. The above lists represent our current understanding of the group, though there is some variation from source to source.